Confounding Variables in Behavioral Experiments

[DISCLAIMER]

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) uses a scientific approach to mental, emotional, and behavioral health (collectively “mental health”) regarding the ABC model. At this point in the blogpost, it may be useful to briefly describe how the model functions.

REBT uses the ABC model to illustrate that when an undesirable Action occurs and you Believe an unhelpful narrative about the event, it’s your unfavorable assumption, not the occurrence itself, that causes an unpleasant Consequence. This is known as distress or disturbance.

In particular, there are four predominate irrational beliefs which people often use to distress or disturb themselves: global evaluations, low frustration tolerance (LFT), awfulizing, and demandingness. When contemplating these unproductive scripts, think of the acronym GLAD.

Addressing how people upset themselves with unhelpful attitudes, the ABC model incorporates Disputation of unproductive philosophies of life in order to explore Effective new beliefs. Whereas rigid beliefs cause self-disturbance, flexible beliefs result in an un-disturbed condition.

Given that relatively brief description of the ABC model, I now invite you to imagine that I work with clients X and Y. Because I work only with individuals when providing mental health services, suppose that clients X and Y know one another aside from my clinical practice.

Both negotiated similar homework exercises in preparation for a marathon. A form of cognitive behavior therapy, REBT homework affords clients an opportunity to practice skills outside of session, assess motivation for change, and it provides data about areas of opportunity for growth.

This is where the scientific component comes into play. According to the American Psychological Association (APA), science is thusly defined:

[T]he systematic study of structure and behavior in the physical, natural, and social worlds, involving the generation, investigation, and testing of hypotheses [an empirically testable proposition about some fact, behavior, relationship, or the like, usually based on theory, that states an expected outcome resulting from specific conditions or assumptions, the accumulation of data, and the formulation of general laws and theories. […] See scientific explanation; scientific method.

Clients X and Y want to improve their run times, as both independently work with me by using the ABC model and now Effectively believe they can practice chosen suffering to achieve high frustration tolerance (HFT) and foster resilience, so homework is used for data-gathering.

Independently, I assess the interests and goals of both clients X and Y. “I want to test my levels of perseverance and persistence,” client X tells me, “so I’m committing to running no less than eight miles per week, altering my nutrition, and devoting time toward rest and recovery.”

“I’d like to see if I can finish a marathon,” client Y suggests, “so I’ll run whenever I feel like it, mainly based on vibes, and if I don’t want to put in more effort, then I’ll just practice unconditional acceptance [UA].” This begins the experiment, which the APA thusly defines:

[A] series of observations conducted under controlled conditions to study a relationship with the purpose of drawing causal inferences about that relationship.

An experiment involves the manipulation of an independent variable, the measurement of a dependent variable, and the exposure of various participants to one or more of the conditions being studied. Random selection of participants and their random assignment to conditions also are necessary in experiments.

Unlike formal scientific experimentation, behavioral experiments used with REBT homework are structured in a particular manner that suits my individual client’s needs. Regarding this approach, one REBT source states (page 51):

Although [REBT] argues that irrational beliefs are the breeding ground for the development and maintenance of inferential distortions, it is possible for people to effect inferentially based changes without making a profound philosophical change.

Thus, they may regard their inferences as hunches [strong intuitive beliefs concerning especially a future event or result] about reality rather than facts, may generate alternative hypotheses and may seek evidence and/or carry out experiments which test out each hypothesis. They may then accept the hypothesis that represents the ‘best bet’ of those available.

Client Y doesn’t plan on altering much in the way of physiological or psychological fitness—opting to run a marathon based on irrational “vibes,” yet client X’s hunch relates to rational measures toward success while involving a number of variables which the APA thusly defines:

[A] condition in an experiment or a characteristic of an entity, person, or object that can take on different categories, levels, or values and that can be quantified (measured). For example, test scores and ratings assigned by judges are variables.

Client X employs a number of variable changes, such as running no less than eight miles per week, altering nutrition, and devoting time to rest and recovery. Without knowing which change to client X’s routine causes an effect, there exist confounds which the APA thusly defines:

[I]n an experiment, an independent variable that is conceptually distinct but empirically inseparable from one or more other independent variables. Confounding makes it impossible to differentiate that variable’s effects in isolation from its effects in conjunction with other variables.

For example, in a study of high-school student achievement, the type of school (e.g., private vs. public) that a student attended prior to high school and their prior academic achievements in that context are confounds. Also called confounding variable.

Recall that both clients X and Y expressed interests (i.e., desires) and goals (the ends toward which efforts are directed) regarding improvement of their run times. Pragmatically, client Y is prepared to accept—without unhelpful conditions—failure from a lack of genuine effort.

Thus, when this person inevitably doesn’t experience projected run time improvement, then UA can serve as a matter of un-disturbance (e.g., not experiencing guilt). Still, client Y will likely endure distress (e.g., disappointment). Oh well, that’s what comes with minimal effort!

Alternatively, client X uses confounding variables (i.e., unidentifiable causes which nonetheless produce an experimental effect). Therefore, when this individual experiences run time improvement, neither of us knows what led to behavioral experiment success.

Oh, I almost forgot the REBT element of both client X and Y’s behavioral experiments. Aside from run time improvement, each client aimed for chosen suffering to achieve HFT and foster resilience. They both ran the marathon wearing silly superhero costumes (i.e., shame attacking)!

This type of mental health improvement shows an individual that although circumstances aren’t ideal, one may develop an “I can stand it” attitude rather than the “I can’t stand it” self-narrative of LFT. Irrespective of the physical experiment, both prevailed psychologically.

Thus, both clients achieved improvement of mental health when conducting individual behavioral experiments. If you’re interested in doing the same, as you’re prepared to put in effort toward your goals, then I invite you to reach out to me for more information about REBT.

If you’re looking for a provider who tries to work to help understand how thinking impacts physical, mental, emotional, and behavioral elements of your life—helping you to sharpen your critical thinking skills, I invite you to reach out today by using the contact widget on my website.

As a psychotherapist, I’m pleased to try to help people with an assortment of issues ranging from anger (hostility, rage, and aggression) to relational issues, adjustment matters, trauma experience, justice involvement, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety and depression, and other mood or personality-related matters.

At Hollings Therapy, LLC, serving all of Texas, I aim to treat clients with dignity and respect while offering a multi-lensed approach to the practice of psychotherapy and life coaching. My mission includes: Prioritizing the cognitive and emotive needs of clients, an overall reduction in client suffering, and supporting sustainable growth for the clients I serve. Rather than simply trying to help you to feel better, I want to try to help you get better!

Deric Hollings, LPC, LCSW

Photo credit, Designed by Freepik, fair use

References:

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Confound. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/confound

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Control condition. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/control-condition

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Dependent variable (DV). American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/dependent-variable

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Experiment. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/experiment

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Hypothesis. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/hypothesis

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Independent variable (IV). American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/independent-variable

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Science. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/science

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Scientific explanation. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/scientific-explanation

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Scientific method. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/scientific-method

APA Dictionary of Psychology. (2018, April 19). Variable. American Psychological Association. Retrieved from https://dictionary.apa.org/variable

Dryden, W. and Neenan, M. (2004). Counselling Individuals: A Rational Emotive Behavioural Handbook (Fourth Edition). London ; Philadelphia: Whurr Publishers. Retrieved from https://welib.st/md5/a1c979c48ef3edf260a2286954999f15

Hollings, D. (2026, April 20). A cause for concern doesn’t cause concern. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/a-cause-for-concern-doesn-t-cause-concern

Hollings, D. (2024, May 22). A philosophical approach to mental health. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/a-philosophical-approach-to-mental-health

Hollings, D. (2024, May 24). A scientific approach to mental health. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/a-scientific-approach-to-mental-health

Hollings, D. (2023, September 13). Acceptance. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/acceptance

Hollings, D. (2026, February 8). Adaptive and maladaptive emotions and behavior. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/adaptive-and-maladaptive-emotions-and-behavior

Hollings, D. (2025, October 19). Adhering to invisible scripts. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/adhering-to-invisible-scripts

Hollings, D. (2026, April 23). Ain’t that a shame? Oh well, goodbye. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/ain-t-that-a-shame-oh-well-goodbye

Hollings, D. (2024, February 5). An intuitive accountant. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/an-intuitive-accountant

Hollings, D. (2025, September 18). Are you working against your interests and goals? Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/are-you-working-against-your-interests-and-goals

Hollings, D. (2024, November 15). Assumptions. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/assumptions

Hollings, D. (2024, August 7). Awfulizing. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/awfulizing

Hollings, D. (2022, October 24). Chosen suffering. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/chosen-suffering

Hollings, D. (2024, May 19). Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT). Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/cognitive-behavior-therapy-cbt

Hollings, D. (2025, November 12). Conditional acceptance: An ideologically inconsistent case. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/conditional-acceptance-an-ideologically-inconsistent-case

Hollings, D. (2024, July 9). Conditional should beliefs. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/conditional-should-beliefs

Hollings, D. (2024, October 27). Correlation does not imply causation. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/correlation-does-not-imply-causation

Hollings, D. (2022, October 31). Demandingness. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/demandingness

Hollings, D. (2024, October 21). Desire. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/desire

Hollings, D. (2022, March 15). Disclaimer. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/disclaimer

Hollings, D. (2024, March 28). Distorted inferences. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/distorted-inferences

Hollings, D. (2025, March 12). Distress vs. disturbance. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/distress-vs-disturbance

Hollings, D. (2025, December 4). Empirical dispute. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/empirical-dispute

Hollings, D. (2026, March 17). Facts and inferences. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/facts-and-inferences

Hollings, D. (2023, September 8). Fair use. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/fair-use

Hollings, D. (2024, May 17). Feeling better vs. getting better. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/feeling-better-vs-getting-better-1

Hollings, D. (2026, February 13). Five, four, three… beliefs. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/five-four-three-beliefs

Hollings, D. (2023, October 12). Get better. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/get-better

Hollings, D. (2023, September 13). Global evaluations. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/global-evaluations

Hollings, D. (2024, August 27). Guilt and shame are choices. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/guilt-and-shame-are-choices

Hollings, D. (2024, February 24). High frustration tolerance. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/high-frustration-tolerance

Hollings, D. (2023, July 13). Holes in the proposal. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/holes-in-the-proposal

Hollings, D. (n.d.). Hollings Therapy, LLC [Official website]. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/

Hollings, D. (2024, April 18). Homework. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/homework

Hollings, D. (2024, February 20). I have a theory about that. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/i-have-a-theory-about-that

Hollings, D. (2025, October 27). I want what I want. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/i-want-what-i-want

Hollings, D. (2024, April 27). Ideal-world vs. real-world. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/ideal-world-vs-real-world

Hollings, D. (2024, February 14). Insufferable vs. undesirable. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/insufferable-vs-undesirable

Hollings, D. (2026, March 11). Just the facts. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/just-the-facts

Hollings, D. (2023, September 19). Life coaching. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/life-coaching

Hollings, D. (2022, December 2). Low frustration tolerance. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/low-frustration-tolerance

Hollings, D. (2024, March 4). Mental, emotional, and behavioral health. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/mental-emotional-and-behavioral-health

Hollings, D. (2025, November 16). Mental health, mental illness, and mental disorder. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/mental-health-mental-illness-and-mental-disorder

Hollings, D. (2024, April 13). Motivated reasoning. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/motivated-reasoning

Hollings, D. (2024, September 27). My attitude. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/my-attitude

Hollings, D. (2025, August 2). My philosophy. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/my-philosophy

Hollings, D. (2026, April 4). Objective reality. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/objective-reality

Hollings, D. (2025, September 26). Observing eye and perceiving eye. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/observing-eye-and-perceiving-eye

Hollings, D. (2023, September 3). On feelings. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/on-feelings

Hollings, D. (2026, April 12). Perseverance and persistence: What does not kill me makes me stronger. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/perseverance-and-persistence-what-does-not-kill-me-makes-me-stronger

Hollings, D. (2025, October 27). Physiological and psychological fitness. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/physiological-and-psychological-fitness

Hollings, D. (2023, March 20). Practice. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/practice

Hollings, D. (2022, November 17). Preparedness. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/preparedness

Hollings, D. (2024, May 5). Psychotherapist. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/psychotherapist

Hollings, D. (2022, March 24). Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rational-emotive-behavior-therapy-rebt

Hollings, D. (2025, August 13). Rational versus irrational thoughts and beliefs. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rational-versus-irrational-thoughts-and-beliefs

Hollings, D. (2024, January 1). Rational vs. irrational. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rational-vs-irrational

Hollings, D. (2024, July 18). REBT flexibility. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rebt-flexibility

Hollings, D. (2024, January 4). Rigid vs. rigorous. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rigid-vs-rigorous

Hollings, D. (2022, November 1). Self-disturbance. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/self-disturbance

Hollings, D. (2026, April 21). Self-upset. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/self-upset

Hollings, D. (2022, September 8). Shame attacking. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/shame-attacking

Hollings, D. (2026, February 21). The preferences versus expectations paradigm: Love is not enough, though virtue is. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/the-preferences-versus-expectations-paradigm-love-is-not-enough-though-virtue-is

Hollings, D. (2025, April 15). This cake smells unpleasant. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/this-cake-smells-unpleasant

Hollings, D. (2025, February 28). To try is my goal. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/to-try-is-my-goal

Hollings, D. (2025, April 18). Tolerable FAD. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/tolerable-fad

Hollings, D. (2025, January 9). Traditional ABC model. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/traditional-abc-model

Hollings, D. (2024, October 20). Unconditional acceptance redux. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/unconditional-acceptance-redux

Hollings, D. (2024, October 26). Unhelpful expectations. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/unhelpful-expectations

Hollings, D. (2026, April 24). Virtues of fortitude and resilience. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/virtues-of-fortitude-and-resilience

Hollings, D. (2026, April 21). You give me such a vibe: It feels so good. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/you-give-me-such-a-vibe-it-feels-so-good

Odua. (n.d.). Fitness sport stretching exercise [Image]. Freepik. Retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/premium-photo/fitness-sport-stretching-exercise_9107812.htm#from_element=cross_selling__photo