Startle Response and Instinct: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Earlier this morning, when checking my mailbox while the sky was still dark, I observed the behavior of an armadillo, of the nine-banded variety. Because the placental mammal is nocturnal by nature, it likely didn’t anticipate or expect me to be out and about while it strolled around.
The creature probably had poor hearing, as my knees and ankles make the sound of crackling firewood when I walk. Thus, the armadillo didn’t hear me approaching, as I apparently activated its startle response, which the American Psychological Association (APA) thusly defines:
[A]n unlearned, rapid, reflex-like response to sudden, unexpected, and intense stimuli (e.g., loud noises, flashing lights).
This response includes behaviors that serve a protective function, such as closing the eyes, frowning by drawing the eyebrows together, compressing the lips, lowering the head, hunching the shoulders, and bending the trunk and knee.
The reaction can be neutralized by context, inhibition, and habituation. Also called startle reaction.
For context, as reflex was mentioned in that description, the APA defines reflexive behavior as “responses to stimuli that are involuntary or free from conscious control (e.g., the salivation that occurs with the presentation of food) and therefore serve as the basis for classical conditioning.”
In this regard, conscious relates to awareness of oneself, others, and the environment—as exhibited by both human and nonhuman animals. This is juxtaposed with one’s nonconsciousness, regarding that which isn’t explicitly in the contents of conscious experience.
As far as I understand, human animal knowledge about the consciousness of nonhuman animals is significantly limited, because I can’t communicate with an armadillo in any meaningful way about its startle response. Thus, when perceiving a threat, the creature simply ran for cover.
This was likely an instinct, which the APA defines as “an innate, species-specific biological force that impels an organism to do something, particularly to perform a certain act or respond in a certain manner to specific stimuli” and “any inherent or unlearned predisposition (behavioral or otherwise) or motivational force.”
Now, in the above photo – which is imperfectly presented with scratches and dust artifacts, as I unconditionally accept the flawed nature of existence in this case – I’m pictured wearing an Amarillo Dillas hat, regarding a former Amarillo, Texas baseball team (1994-2010).
Growing up in Amarillo, many people colloquially referred to armadillos as “dillas,” which is what the team’s name and mascot encapsulated. I now think of my armadillo encounter from earlier this morning, in consideration of my lifelong experience with these little creatures.
Specifically, a psychoeducational lesson regarding my approach to care for mental, emotional, and behavioral health (collectively “mental health”) comes to mind. In particular, I contemplate the startle response and instinct regarding human and nonhuman animals.
As Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) was formed by the late psychologist Albert Ellis, who reportedly developed the first cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) psychotherapeutic modality in 1955, this blog entry is part of an ongoing series regarding his book, Ask Albert Ellis?: Straight Answers and Sound Advice from America’s Best-Known Psychologist.
REBT uses the ABC model to illustrate that when an undesirable Action occurs and you Believe an unhelpful narrative about the event, it’s your unfavorable assumption, not the occurrence itself, that causes an unpleasant Consequence. This is known as distress or disturbance.
Depending on the REBT source one reviews, Actions are also referred to as Antecedents, Activating events, Adversities, and other terms which merely represent a precipitating event, like an Armadillo encounter—if something undesirable occurred, like the creature Attacking me.
Noteworthy, with virtually any undesirable Action that occurs, it’s your unfavorable Beliefs which cause unpleasant distress or disturbance (Consequence). Given this framing of self-distress and self-disturbance, it’s worth noting that one REBT source states (page 71):
REBT conceptualizes [distress] as healthy even though it is intense. Other approaches to therapy have as their goal the reduction of the intensity of negative emotions. They take this position because they do not keenly differentiate between healthy negative emotions (distress) and unhealthy negative emotions (disturbance).
Now, REBT keenly distinguishes between healthy distress and unhealthy disturbance. Healthy distress stems from your rational beliefs about a negative activating event [Action], whilst disturbance stems from your irrational beliefs about the same event.
Complete elimination of distress is highly unlikely in an impermanent and uncertain world wherein people conceptually suffer, struggle, and battle with, or merely experience hardship. Still, individuals often make matters worse for themselves by disturbing about such instances.
In particular, there are four predominate irrational beliefs which people often use to distress or disturb themselves: global evaluations, low frustration tolerance, awfulizing, and demandingness. When contemplating these unproductive scripts, think of the acronym GLAD.
Additionally, from a psychological standpoint, people distress or disturb themselves using a Belief-Consequence (B-C) connection. Of course, this isn’t to suggest that in the context of the naturalistic or physical world there is no Action-Consequence (A-C) connection.
From an A-C view, an armadillo didn’t detect my presence until I was several feet from it (Action), and once it was aware of my presence, it scurried for cover (Consequence). Co-occurring with this reflexive response was likely the experience of fright (immediate fear).
This instinctive startle response may or may not have been caused by a B-C connection. As I’m not Doctor Dolittle (an imaginary health provider in children’s books who can communicate with animals in their own languages), I have no method of discerning what the armadillo Believed.
Nevertheless, I comprehend that the experience of conscious and nonconscious automatic thoughts and beliefs occurs in human animals. Of this matter, I stated in Nonconscious Distress and a Centipede:
I pose this matter, not to confuse you, though for your consideration regarding the ABC model. Sometimes, after an undesirable event, you can carefully assess what it was that you may’ve told yourself in the moment. Yet, concerning the nonconscious, it may be hard to identify.
I don’t know about the intellectual or emotional insight of armadillos. Nonetheless, I recognize that after the unpleasant Consequences of Beliefs occur following a B-C Action for humans, it may be worthwhile to examine what an individual told oneself during the undesirable Adversity.
In this way, people can condition themselves to react in a more adaptive manner when the next Antecedent inevitably occurs. In a moment, I’ll delve into Beliefs a bit more. For now, consider that the woman with whom I’m featured in the above photo didn’t return my affection.
I experienced unrequited love (Action), Believed, “I’m nothing without her [G], and it’s intolerable to think that she’ll probably marry someone else [L], as that would be terrible [A], so I absolutely mustn’t be rejected [D], and I then experienced fear (Consequence).
Bear in mind that REBT distinguishes between negative, though healthy reactions, and negative, but unhealthy responses. The fear I caused myself was a matter of unhealthiness, as I self-disturbingly reacted to my Beliefs about the Action in a manner by which I wasn’t pleased.
Addressing how people upset themselves with unhelpful attitudes, the ABC model incorporates Disputation of unproductive philosophies of life in order to explore Effective new beliefs. Whereas rigid beliefs cause self-disturbance, flexible beliefs result in an un-disturbed condition.
It’s a relatively simple matter to dissect what I may’ve told myself about an Activating event involving unrequited love that took place decades ago. However, I knew nothing about the B-C connection back then. Therefore, I thought in A-C terms, like an armadillo running for cover.
In particular, I knew little about logic (a particular rule-governed form of symbolic expression used to analyze the relations between propositions) and reason (consecutive thought, as in deduction or induction). That which is rational is in accordance with both logic and reason.
Rational thinking aligns with reasoning, which the APA defines as “thinking in which logical processes of an inductive or deductive character are used to draw conclusions from facts or premises” and “the sequence of arguments or proofs used to establish a conclusion in this way.”
In these definitions are the terms induction, inductive, deduction, and deductive. For context, the APA defines induction as “a general conclusion, principle, or explanation derived by reasoning from particular instances or observations.” I induced that an armadillo was frightened.
It ran and sought cover once it realized that I was close to it. This instinctive startle response aligns with a fight, flight, freeze, or fawn reaction. Therefore, the observational data I used then related to the process of inductive reasoning, which the APA thusly defines:
[T]he form of reasoning in which inferences and general principles are drawn from specific observations and cases. Inductive reasoning is a cornerstone of the scientific method (see Baconian method) in that it underlies the process of developing hypotheses from particular facts and observations.
In short, inductive reasoning occurs when one observes a number of indications and then draws a conclusion that is imperfect, though probably, true. Now, I’ll switch from the frightened armadillo example to when I wore an Amarillo Dillas hat when in love with a woman.
Here, it’s worth noting that the APA defines deduction as “a conclusion derived from formal premises by a valid process of deductive reasoning” and “the process of inferential reasoning itself.” For clarity, the APA thusly defines deductive reasoning:
[T]he form of logical reasoning in which a conclusion is shown to follow necessarily from a sequence of premises, the first of which stands for a self-evident truth (see axiom) or agreed-upon data. In the empirical sciences, deductive reasoning underlies the process of deriving predictions from general laws or theories.
While I acknowledge that some form of nonconscious or instinctive mechanism may’ve been present regarding my unhelpful B-C connection with unrequited love, I also admit how I deductively reasoned that if the woman I loved didn’t love me, then she’d love someone else.
Using a modus ponens syllogism (if p, then q; p; therefor, q), I Believed that if the woman I loved didn’t love me (p), then she’d love someone else (q). The woman I loved didn’t, in fact, love me (p). Therefore, she did, in fact, end up loving (and marrying) someone else (q).
This imperfect deduced form of both logic and reason was rational. However, the rigid GLAD Belief I used about this Adversity was what caused my self-disturbed fear. Regarding unproductive induction and deduction in the form of GLAD Beliefs, Ellis stated (page 6):
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy offers a simple “ABC” structure to help explain how this [self-distress or self-disturbance] works. Point “A” is an adverse event – such as failure or rejection by significant others. Point “B” represents the person’s belief system or philosophy or view of what happens at “A.” This view can be rational and irrational. Point “C” is the consequences the person creates as a result of “A” and “B.”
Thus, if people rationally tell themselves, “I don’t like ‘A,’ and I wish it were not so,” then they feel healthfully sorry, disappointed, regretful about “A.” On the other hand, if at point “B” they tell themselves – irrationally and unhealthfully – “It shouldn’t be that bad [D]. I should have made it better [D]. Other people shouldn’t have created this adversity for me [D]. The world shouldn’t have such events [D]. It’s awful, terrible, and horrible [A], and I can’t stand it [L]. I can’t be happy at all [G]!” Then – at point “C” – the consequences they produce are unhealthy negative feelings and unhealthy behaviors, such as obsessive-compulsiveness, drinking, running away, phobias, etc.
When conveying Ellis’ lesson to those with whom I practice REBT, I fully acknowledge that GLAD Beliefs many not be evident during Adversity (i.e., in the moment). Therefore, I encourage people to examine their self-disturbing narratives after an undesirable event.
In this way, if one’s startle response or instinctive Beliefs were influenced by an unhelpful inductive and deductive reasoning process, then the person may condition oneself to respond differently in the future. That is unless one is an armadillo. In that case, REBT won’t help much.
If you’re looking for a provider who tries to work to help understand how thinking impacts physical, mental, emotional, and behavioral elements of your life—helping you to sharpen your critical thinking skills, I invite you to reach out today by using the contact widget on my website.
As a psychotherapist, I’m pleased to try to help people with an assortment of issues ranging from anger (hostility, rage, and aggression) to relational issues, adjustment matters, trauma experience, justice involvement, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, anxiety and depression, and other mood or personality-related matters.
At Hollings Therapy, LLC, serving all of Texas, I aim to treat clients with dignity and respect while offering a multi-lensed approach to the practice of psychotherapy and life coaching. My mission includes: Prioritizing the cognitive and emotive needs of clients, an overall reduction in client suffering, and supporting sustainable growth for the clients I serve. Rather than simply trying to help you to feel better, I want to try to help you get better!
Deric Hollings, LPC, LCSW
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Hollings, D. (2025, August 13). Rational versus irrational thoughts and beliefs. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rational-versus-irrational-thoughts-and-beliefs
Hollings, D. (2024, January 1). Rational vs. irrational. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rational-vs-irrational
Hollings, D. (2024, July 18). REBT flexibility. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rebt-flexibility
Hollings, D. (2024, January 20). Reliability vs. validity. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/reliability-vs-validity
Hollings, D. (2024, January 4). Rigid vs. rigorous. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rigid-vs-rigorous
Hollings, D. (2026, March 5). Rules-based order: Rules will vary. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/rules-based-order-rules-will-vary
Hollings, D. (2025, October 9). Self-awareness, self-examination, and self-determination. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/self-awareness-self-examination-and-self-determination
Hollings, D. (2026, July 7). Self-distress and distress tolerance. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/self-distress-and-distress-tolerance
Hollings, D. (2022, November 1). Self-disturbance. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/self-disturbance
Hollings, D. (2026, April 28). Self-motivation: Trying to motivate the unmotivated. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/self-motivation-trying-to-motivate-the-unmotivated
Hollings, D. (2026, April 21). Self-upset. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/self-upset
Hollings, D. (2026, May 31). Standards and principles. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/standards-and-principles
Hollings, D. (2024, February 27). Suffering, struggling, and battling vs. experiencing. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/suffering-struggling-and-battling-vs-experiencing
Hollings, D. (2022, December 23). The A-C connection. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/the-a-c-connection
Hollings, D. (2022, December 25). The B-C connection. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/the-b-c-connection
Hollings, D. (2025, October 22). The construct. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/the-construct
Hollings, D. (2022, November 2). The critical A. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/the-critical-a
Hollings, D. (2023, August 6). The science. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/the-science
Hollings, D. (2026, May 15). The speed of thoughts and beliefs: Flipping the bird. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/the-speed-of-thoughts-and-beliefs-flipping-the-bird
Hollings, D. (2026, April 23). The three traditionally identified components of the mind: Affect, cognition, and conation. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/the-three-traditionally-identified-components-of-the-mind-affect-cognition-and-conation
Hollings, D. (2025, April 15). This cake smells unpleasant. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/this-cake-smells-unpleasant
Hollings, D. (2025, February 28). To try is my goal. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/to-try-is-my-goal
Hollings, D. (2025, April 18). Tolerable FAD. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/tolerable-fad
Hollings, D. (2025, January 9). Traditional ABC model. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/traditional-abc-model
Hollings, D. (2024, October 20). Unconditional acceptance redux. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/unconditional-acceptance-redux
Hollings, D. (2024, March 18). Unhealthy vs. healthy negative emotions. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/unhealthy-vs-healthy-negative-emotions
Hollings, D. (2024, October 26). Unhelpful expectations. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/unhelpful-expectations
Hollings, D. (2026, June 15). Updating your hypothesis. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/updating-your-hypothesis
Hollings, D. (2025, March 11). We live in an imperfect world. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/we-live-in-an-imperfect-world
Hollings, D. (2024, September 26). We’ll start from that premise. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/we-ll-start-from-that-premise
Hollings, D. (2026, August 19). Wisdom and acting justly are one and the same. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/wisdom-and-acting-justly-are-one-and-the-same
Hollings, D. (2024, April 17). Wishes, dreams, and goals. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/wishes-dreams-and-goals
Hollings, D. (2025, July 22). You almost always end up with regret. Hollings Therapy, LLC. Retrieved from https://www.hollingstherapy.com/post/you-almost-always-end-up-with-regret
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